Swati is a development researcher with over fourteen years of experience advising businesses, international development organizations, and governments on ways to ensure inclusive development, especially when using digital pathways. She has worked on the interconnected themes of digital financial inclusion, financial literacy, women’s economic empowerment, digital livelihoods, and consumer protection. Swati has worked with GIZ and MicroSave Consulting, where she worked on advancing digital financial inclusion in Asia and Africa. She holds a Ph.D. in economic geography and is a German Chancellor Fellow 2017-2018. She has conducted extensive research on the financial transitions of refugees in Jordan and Germany, specifically exploring the role of digital financial services. Swati&#8217;s contributions are disseminated through academic papers, reports, essays, blogs, and articles. She currently serves as a consultant for various development organizations.

Financial Inclusion Consultant

Swati Mehta

Elizabeth (Liz) McGuinness

CFI and WFP’s research shows that well-designed cash transfer programs have the potential to enhance household well-being and reduce risks of intimate partner violence, but doing so successfully requires a nuanced approach that incorporates gender-transformative elements and engages multiple stakeholders. This blog post explores how, when designed intentionally, cash transfer programs can help us move closer towards the goal of women's economic empowerment.

Blog Post

This blog post was written by Swati Mehta, independent consultant and development researcher, and Liz McGuinness, Senior Director and thematic lead for Women’s Financial Inclusion at CFI, in collaboration with Astrid de Valon who leads the World Food Programme’s (WFP) work on Digital Financial Inclusion and Women’s Economic Empowerment. This is part of a <a class="Hyperlink SCXW224207048 BCX0" href="https://www.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/series/digital-cash-transfers-for-women" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">series</a> of CFI work done in partnership with WFP, with funding from the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation, that explores how we can improve the design and delivery of digital cash transfers for low-income women.

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<h1>WFP’s New Policy Prioritizes Women to Receive Cash Transfers on Behalf of Their Households</h1>
Today, digital innovations are reshaping the way we manage money and helping to advance digital financial inclusion. Specifically, the digitization of cash transfers is helping to scale up humanitarian assistance and government-to-people (G2P) payments. However, unless these digital advances have a deliberate gender-focused approach, they risk missing the opportunity to advance women’s financial inclusion and increase their empowerment.

Recognizing the transformative power that directing cash transfers to women can have, WFP’s <a href="https://reliefweb.int/report/world/wfp-cash-policy-harnessing-power-money-help-people-survive-and-thrive" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">revamped cash policy</a> prioritizes sending money to women’s accounts on behalf of their households whenever possible. WFP is the world’s largest provider of humanitarian cash. WFP provides assistance to the people who are most at risk of going hungry. Two-thirds of these people live in conflict settings, the majority are women, and many live in hard-to-reach areas with limited access to services. In 2022, WFP sent $3.3 billion to assist 56 million people in 72 countries, with cash-based transfers constituting 35 percent of all WFP assistance. Currently, 1.3 million women receive money from WFP on their own accounts for their families. With their new policy in place, WFP’s goal is to reach 10 million women in the next few years.

This policy change was supported by a <a href="https://www.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/series/digital-cash-transfers-for-women">series of studies</a> run jointly by CFI and WFP to explore how providing women with their <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/globalfindex" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">first access</a> to digital solutions and financial accounts can lead to increased economic participation and reduce poverty in their households and communities.
<blockquote>CFI and WFP found that carefully designed cash transfer programs that send money directly to women on behalf of their households can not only enhance household well-being and increase women’s empowerment, but can often reduce the risks of intimate partner violence (IPV) as well.</blockquote>
Sending money to women on behalf of their families raises several questions about potential risks that could come from changing how cash transfers are delivered and to whom. Through a comprehensive desk study and interviews with expert stakeholders, CFI and WFP found that carefully designed cash transfer programs that send money directly to women on behalf of their households can not only enhance household well-being and increase women’s empowerment but can often reduce the risks of intimate partner violence (IPV) as well.  However, under certain conditions, cash transfers to women may still trigger instances of IPV in contexts where rigid gender norms are deeply ingrained. To understand these conditions, it is useful to examine the impact pathways and risk factors that link cash transfers and IPV.
<h1>Understanding the Link: Cash Transfers and Intimate Partner Violence</h1>
There are three pathways through which cash transfers can either reduce or exacerbate the risk factors associated with IPV. In one pathway, cash increases household income, thereby <a href="https://academic.oup.com/wbro/article-pdf/33/2/218/26000886/lky002.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">reducing conflict</a> due to economic insecurity and related emotional stress. In these cases, cash transfer programs have proven to positively impact household economic security, leading to reduced reliance on negative financial coping mechanisms, enhanced emotional well-being, and reduced IPV.

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 <img class="aligncenter wp-image-46471" src="https://content.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/10/Cash-Transfers-IPV-Three-Pathways.png" alt="" width="808" height="727" />

<img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-46472" src="https://content.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/10/Screenshot-2023-10-10-at-1.32.46-PM.png" alt="" width="854" height="45" />

Comprehensive studies across diverse contexts have consistently shown a reduction in IPV. A <a href="https://academic.oup.com/wbro/article-pdf/33/2/218/26000886/lky002.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">review of 22 studies</a> spanning Latin America, Africa, and Asia found that in 16 of those studies, cash transfers resulted in reduced IPV. Another <a href="https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/11316.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">meta-analysis</a> on the effect of cash transfers found that the bulk of the evidence pointed towards either a reduction in IPV or no change in IPV. There is an <a href="https://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/135938/filename/136149.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">expanding evidence base</a> arising from research conducted across diverse geographies and settings examining the role of complex design features and post-program impacts.

Other studies have shown that when transfers increase the amount of cash in the household, it may in fact increase intra-household conflict and IPV when there are disagreements about how to use the money, as seen in the second pathway. Similarly, programs in which cash transfers increase women’s economic empowerment through increasing their confidence or financial autonomy may shift household dynamics which can lead to either reduced or increased risk of IPV depending on whether there is a positive or negative reaction to women’s newfound status, as seen in pathway three.

The study confirmed that while directing funds to women’s accounts for their households can indeed bring additional benefits for women, they must be coupled with complementary initiatives to mitigate potential backlash resulting from the shifts in household dynamics. 
<h1>How to Best Design Cash Transfers Prioritizing Women as Recipients on Behalf of Their Households</h1>
It is evident that there can be real benefits in directing cash transfer payments to women. Yet research is limited on the differential impact of IPV based on the gender of the primary recipient. Therefore, it is important to design interventions to mitigate any unintended IPV risks when cash is directed to women on behalf of their households. Experience and evidence suggest that policymakers and program managers pay special attention to how programs are executed and the context in which they are rolled out.
<h3>Execution Matters: Ensuring Sustainable Change </h3>
<blockquote class="pullquote--right">If programs are executed well, the reductions in IPV due to cash transfers could be sustained beyond the program term.</blockquote>
If programs are executed well, the reductions in IPV due to cash transfers could be sustained beyond the program term. While the evidence is still emerging, <a href="https://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/135938/filename/136149.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">early studies</a> and operational guidelines (see World Bank’s <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/10986/35641/5/Safety-First-How-to-Leverage-Social-Safety-Nets-to-Prevent-Gender-Based-Violence.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Safety First</a> Toolkit and WHO’s <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/312261/WHO-RHR-18.19-eng.pdf?ua=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">RESPECT</a> framework) have highlighted the important role of complementary interventions to sustain reductions in IPV risk factors. These include livelihood trainings or productive asset transfers to improve income; trainings and initiatives to improve household financial management; parenting programs or discussion groups to improve relationships between the household members; and programs to improve women’s confidence, economic standing, and social capital, such as through livelihood trainings, financial planning, and other group-based activities.

A promising example of this type of long-term thinking and practical training is WFP’s cash transfer program in Jordan. There, as WFP transitions from value vouchers to mobile wallets, women in male-headed households are specifically encouraged to open the primary wallet for receiving cash assistance. To ease this shift and promote household acceptance, WFP conducts information sessions for the heads of households and spouses to educate them on wallet setup, benefits, and usage. The training materials stress the importance of multiple wallets within the household, presenting it as a family-sharing solution. While changing entrenched gender norms takes time, this intervention saw 11 percent of male-headed households outside camps and 5 percent within camps registering women to receive cash transfers via her own mobile.
<h3>Context Matters: Impact on IPV in Diverse Settings</h3>
Our research emphasizes the importance of <a href="https://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/135938/filename/136149.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">contextual factors</a> in designing effective cash transfer programs that address IPV risks. In conservative contexts characterized by rigid gender norms, there may be a higher risk of backlash when women gain control over resources. This risk worsens in countries experiencing civil war or in conflict zones and among specific sub-groups of women, such as those with low educational levels or in households with constrained budgets or larger families. However, these settings also present opportunities for change by designing targeted interventions that empower women and thereby reduce exposure to some of the factors that make women vulnerable to violence. These include low bargaining power within household decision-making and a lack of control over financial resources.
<blockquote class="pullquote--left">Conservative settings present opportunities for change by designing targeted interventions that empower women, and thereby reduce exposure to some of the factors that make women vulnerable to violence.</blockquote>
In Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo, WFP and its collaborating partners successfully engaged the community by identifying and training both men and women community champions. These champions were carefully chosen from households where women were designated as the primary recipients of cash transfers delivered through digital financial services. Their role was to support and educate the wider community on the numerous advantages of digital financial services, and to address any questions or concerns raised by community members. The men champions also sensitized other men in their community regarding women’s access to and use of financial services and how that benefits the entire household.
<h1>Looking Ahead</h1>
CFI and WFP’s research shows that well-designed cash transfer programs have the potential to enhance household well-being, contribute to women’s economic power, and reduce risks of IPV. But doing so successfully requires a <a href="https://content.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/09/Sending-Cash-Transfers-to-Women-infographic.pdf">nuanced approach</a> that incorporates gender-transformative elements and engages multiple stakeholders. When done well, these programs can create an environment where women’s journeys are both secure and empowering. Economic empowerment for women is not just about dollars and cents; it's about giving them the tools they need to thrive, the power to control their financial destinies, and the freedom to live without fear of violence. When cash transfer programs are designed intentionally, considering local context, they can help us move closer towards the goal of women's economic empowerment, paving the way for brighter futures, stronger families, and more resilient societies.

Prioritizing Women to Receive Cash Transfers: What Are the Implications for Program Design?

A comprehensive study by CFI and WFP suggests that directing funds into the hands of women on behalf of their households can reduce risk factors associated with intimate partner violence (IPV). This blog post highlights how to design cash transfer programs and send money to women while reducing the risk of IPV.

This is part of a <a class="fui-Link ___10kug0w f3rmtva f1ewtqcl fyind8e f1k6fduh f1w7gpdv fk6fouc fjoy568 figsok6 f1hu3pq6 f11qmguv f19f4twv f1tyq0we f1g0x7ka fhxju0i f1qch9an f1cnd47f fqv5qza f1vmzxwi f1o700av f13mvf36 f1cmlufx f9n3di6 f1ids18y f1tx3yz7 f1deo86v f1eh06m1 f1iescvh fhgqx19 f1olyrje f1p93eir f1nev41a f1h8hb77 f1lqvz6u f10aw75t fsle3fq f17ae5zn" title="https://www.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/series/digital-cash-transfers-for-women" href="https://www.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/series/digital-cash-transfers-for-women" rel="noreferrer noopener" aria-label="Link series">series</a> of work done in partnership with CFI and WFP, with funding from the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation, that explores how we can improve the design and delivery of digital cash transfers for low-income women.

Cash transfer programs have emerged as a crucial tool in the global effort to combat poverty, overcome shocks and other adversities, and achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Cash transfers provide financial support to vulnerable households, enabling them to meet their basic needs, access essential services, and invest in income-generating activities. However, beyond the immediate economic relief they offer, cash transfer programs also have the potential to <a href="https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/11316.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">address deeper societal issues, including gender inequality</a>. 
<blockquote class="pullquote--right">By putting money directly into the hands of women within households, these programs challenge traditional gender norms and empower women to make decisions about finances, thereby enhancing their control over economic resources.</blockquote>
<a href="https://blogs.worldbank.org/voices/building-back-better-means-designing-cash-transfers-womens-empowerment" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Women's economic empowerment</a> is increasingly recognized as a central objective of cash transfer programs. By <a href="https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000141256/download/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">putting money directly into the hands of women within households</a>, these programs challenge traditional gender norms and empower women to make decisions about finances, thereby enhancing their control over economic resources. This not only contributes to reducing gender inequalities but also enhances women's access to formal digital financial services and potentially brings additional benefits such as <a href="https://content.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2022/12/Bridging-the-gap-1.pdf">increasing access to identification documents</a>. 

As we explore the potential benefits of directing funds to women, a critical question arises: could this approach exacerbate the risk of intimate partner violence (IPV)? This question probes the potential shifts in power dynamics within households and the increased vulnerability women might face as they gain control over financial matters. 

Is this concern rooted in perception, or does substantial evidence support these claims? To dig into this question, a <a href="https://content.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/09/Sending-Cash-Transfers-to-Women-Report.pdf">comprehensive study</a> conducted by CFI, in partnership with the World Food Programme (WFP) and funded by the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation, examined existing evidence and sought insights from experts in the field. The study's findings suggest that directing funds into the hands of women on behalf of their households can in fact reduce the risk factors associated with IPV. This positive outcome is primarily attributed to the alleviation of financial stress within households and improvements in emotional well-being. However, it is essential to acknowledge that despite the potential benefits, cash transfers to women may still trigger instances of IPV, especially in contexts where harmful gender norms are deeply ingrained.
<blockquote>Despite the potential benefits, cash transfers to women may still trigger instances of IPV, especially in contexts where harmful gender norms are deeply ingrained.  </blockquote>
Globally, <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240026681" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">27 percent</a> of ever-married/partnered women, ages 15 – 49 years, have experienced physical or sexual violence by an intimate partner in their lifetime. Women living in the least developed countries and in countries facing conflicts are disproportionately affected with an even higher prevalence of IPV. Gender inequalities that restrict women’s access to basic services and rigid social norms that support masculinities based on power and control are <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/09-03-2021-devastatingly-pervasive-1-in-3-women-globally-experience-violence" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">major risk factors leading to IPV</a>. Cash transfers directed to women on behalf of the household can challenge these norms by putting money in the hands of women. However, simply transferring cash is not enough and must be accompanied by <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/312261/WHO-RHR-18.19-eng.pdf?ua=1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">programming to gradually transform gender norms</a>. 

In line with the "do no harm" principle, designing cash transfer programs that effectively minimize the risks of IPV is paramount, particularly in settings where such violence is prevalent. At the same time, it is crucial to consider the impact on IPV beyond the program’s duration and explore how the reduction in IPV can be sustained in the longer term.  
<h1>How to Design Cash Transfer Programs and Send Money to Women While Reducing Risk of Intimate Partner Violence  </h1>
From this research, CFI and WFP developed a <a href="https://content.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/09/Sending-Cash-Transfers-to-Women-infographic.pdf">guide</a> that details how to design cash transfer programs that enhance household well-being, increase women’s empowerment, and reduce the risks of IPV. It is important to note that effective design and implementation of cash transfer programs directed to women’s accounts should follow a comprehensive assessment of IPV risks, carefully considering contextual factors including prevailing gender norms, socioeconomic dynamics, and political conditions. 

Several key recommendations emerge from our analysis: 

<img class="wp-image-46448 size-full alignnone" src="https://content.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/09/Screenshot-2023-09-27-at-2.49.17-PM-e1695913799888.png" alt="" width="791" height="607" /> <img class="size-full wp-image-46449 alignnone" src="https://content.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/09/Screenshot-2023-09-27-at-2.49.32-PM.png" alt="" width="791" height="779" />

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The <a href="https://www.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/sending-cash-transfers-to-women-how-to-design-programs-that-enhance-well-being-while-safeguarding-against-intimate-partner-violence">full report</a> from the study details actionable insights backed by lessons and examples from diverse cash transfer programs.

Cash Transfers Directed to Women and the Implications for Intimate Partner Violence: Lessons for Program Design

Mayada El-Zoghbi

Report

When cash transfers are safely sent directly to women, they have the potential to address gender inequities by helping women meet basic needs, access essential services, and invest in income-generating activities. But prioritizing women as the primary recipients of cash transfer programs, and thus diverging from traditional practices where men are the heads of households, raises concerns about intimate partner violence (IPV).<span class="EOP SCXW226271306 BCX0" data-ccp-props="{&quot;134233117&quot;:false,&quot;134233118&quot;:false,&quot;201341983&quot;:0,&quot;335559738&quot;:0,&quot;335559739&quot;:160,&quot;335559740&quot;:240}"> This report examines existing evidence on the impact of cash transfers on IPV against women and proposes design approaches to mitigate and minimize those risks. While the report primarily focuses on evidence related to reducing the risk of IPV following cash transfers to women on behalf of households, it also underscores the potential that sending cash to women has for reducing existing IPV. The objective is to foster a constructive dialogue and encourage governments and humanitarian organizations implementing cash transfer programs to prioritize women as the recipients of cash on behalf of their households whenever feasible, while ensuring their safety and adequate support.  

This series, created in partnership with World Food Programme (WFP), the Center for Financial Inclusion (CFI), and the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation, shares how we can improve the design and delivery of digital cash transfers for low-income women.

Swati Mehta

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